Stress signaling from the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum: coordination of gene transcriptional and translational controls

All eukaryotic cells have an extensive membranous labyrinth network of branching tubules and flattened sacs called the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Approximately one-third of all cellular proteins are translocated into the lumen of the ER where post-translational modification, folding, and oligomerization occurs. The ER provides a unique oxidizing compartment for the folding of membrane and secretory proteins that are destined to the cell surface, as well as for proteins destined to other intracellular organelles, such as lysosomes and the Golgi compartment. Numerous cellular proteins reside within the ER through a mechanism that requires their continuous vesicle-mediated retrieval from post-ER compartments within the early secretory pathway. These ERresident proteins are chaperones and catalysts of protein folding that form a matrix on which newly synthesized proteins attain their final conformation. The ER is also the site of synthesis of cellular lipids and sterols. In addition, the ER is the major signal-transducing organelle within the cell that continuously responds to environmental cues to release calcium. The ER is exquisitely sensitive to alterations in homeostasis, where, upon a variety of different stimuli, signals are transduced from the ER to the cytoplasm and the nucleus to eventually result in adaptation for survival or induction of apoptosis. The immediate response occurs at the translational apparatus, whereas changes in gene expression promote long-term adaptation or apoptotic cell death. Recent evidence supports findings that these signaling pathways influence pathogenesis associated with viral infection and genetic disease. The purpose of this review is to summarize what is presently known about the diversity of molecular signaling mechanisms that coordinate the complex ER stress response at the translational and transcriptional level in yeast and in higher eukaryotic cells.