A Trade of No Dishonor: Piracy, Commerce, and Community in the Western Indian Ocean, Twelfth to Sixteenth Century

Figure 1: A 1740 map by Jacques Nicolas Bellin showing the Persian coast and India's western seaboard. The Malabar Coast, on the southwestern verge of the Indian peninsula, had been home to sea rovers since ancient times. To the human propensity to truck, barter, and exchange identified by Adam Smith may well be added the complementary proclivity to rob, pilfer, and extort. Yet, even though the history of commerce is inextricably linked to coercion, their relationship is rarely problematized. This is most apparent in the case of seaborne raiding, commonly described as piracy. In recent years, the study of the maritime sphere has increasingly highlighted the pervasiveness of piracy across different regions and over time.1 In the case of the Indian Ocean, however, not only does a comprehensive history of piracy remain to be written, but even the conceptual engagement with the topic has proven to be “a surprisingly controversial matter.”2 This controversy is rooted in two key issues: the relationship of piracy to sovereignty, on the one hand, and to trade, on the other. Accounts of travel and trade in the Indian Ocean are rife with pirates. This is especially evident in sources dealing with the period from the twelfth century onward, which saw a marked expansion of seaborne trade across the ocean. The frequent references to the experience or perceived threat of pirate attacks within these sources stand in curious contrast to the historiography of the pre-European Indian Ocean, which propagates a vision of a peaceful maritime milieu unmarred by violence. Fernand Braudel, for instance, wrote that the maritime customs of the Indian Ocean “had always been extremely pacific.”3 This view was shared by K. M. Panikkar, who claimed that prior to the coming of the Portuguese, the ocean had enjoyed a “complete freedom of trade and navigation,” with “no interference of any kind with trade which was open to ships of all nations.”4 In a similar vein, Janet Abu-Lughod identifies “long centuries of relative peace and tolerance” in the ocean's history.5 Accordingly, much of the literature has tended to portray piracy as a perennial aberration to this presumed tranquility, as an irrepressible “maritime macroparasitism” that emerged organically wherever a juicy host presented itself.6 In this view, pirates are seen almost as a natural occurrence, without any concrete sense of agency or indeed history. The failure to acknowledge piracy as a systemic feature of the premodern Indian Ocean world is rooted in false preconceptions that have been derived from the history of Europe. The key criterion by which piracy has been evaluated is organization. The question of organization is at the heart of the legal definition of piracy as well as political and economic models for its analysis. And by this measure, historians have found Asian piracy wanting in comparison to the quality of maritime violence ascribed to the European interlopers. Maritime violence in Asian waters before the sixteenth century has been downplayed because it does not conform to archetypes based in Europe's historical experience of Mediterranean corsairing and Caribbean privateering. As a result, Indian Ocean pirates are more likely to be portrayed as pests than as political actors. The very term “pirate” already carries this implication. The prevailing definition of piracy is the product of a European legal tradition going back to Roman law, which classes the pirate as hostis humani generis.7 In its explication in modern international law, piracy has come to be defined as “acts of violence done upon the ocean … by a body of men acting independently of any politically organised society.”8 The legal definition of piracy, therefore, hinges on the of political organization and have the question of political organization at the of their engagement with piracy. who that the Indian who and who are defined by their to a political this is of in piracy it to a case The in the of is as a political in the of the of the premodern This is evident in the of which is to at sea who a of from a that are from pirates by their of a legal by a an that to the European of is not that European sea in the Indian Ocean are almost always as Asian with of political organization are as pirates. The of this of are in an of the of European it Asian pirates a of and is it has these to be back the of the and political of maritime violence in Indian Ocean history. In study of to Mediterranean piracy in the modern which it from the of view of the and its for The pirates in the Indian Ocean to its from a with the as it is by of derived from Europe's historical and of maritime violence as a of an for the of piracy in the trade and of the western Indian The history of piracy on the Malabar a case study for this a historical on the southwestern verge of the Indian peninsula, was of in commerce on of its on the of and its as a within the of it was home to of history is from the twelfth century to the Malabar the case for in Asian the the sixteenth century that the of the piracy, especially by but that this is not as a but in the of the of maritime violence and on and the Malabar Coast, before and the of question the of European legal and political as historical for the study of maritime violence in the western Indian pirates within their as with only to political This the of piracy to models of and to the question of political the on which piracy have is the relationship piracy and The pirate and the world was much more than the of the and pirates and and from the conceptual of piracy in a study of Mediterranean history by and which pirates as with the world of trade than as its the question of by on the of political pirates and in the sixteenth century the view that the of ocean of sovereignty, and the of as the of was a European the Indian Ocean not as the of European of trade and but as to of maritime violence that the of trade and The references to maritime trade with the of its pirates. the Roman for the Malabar in the century of on because its waters with that the of by in the of the modern of on of its the of in the A century as the pirate of southwestern the the of piracy in that the for piracy the The for the and twelfth centuries frequent of pirate in this one was on from to and on the of the of the And that from this of and from it more than a on pirates with their and and the is to in of or of these pirate and a sea that is an of or and that a of and any one a a is by or and the of for and the and This two the of ships and their question the that these pirates their of and with the that for the with their and that piracy was a This is of piracy as of their economic are for Indian Ocean the the of pirate attacks on the Malabar a was on was upon by a of and that the pirates Indian In the the of the Malabar as with all of are to and not And in the the this in of the in these for come their is and is a are a by their and a men and are a of and sea with is in the of of pirates of and the Malabar The of their was of by the of the that defined the is that a of political organization by their the very feature by the of which pirates are these to Indian history that these pirates of the The are as the sea of the Malabar their political on from within the at the of the sixteenth the as and In of a and in the identified a by as the of the in the is but and in the by of all and on the of a are and a of all with and in and any with of and sources to the in maritime violence the sixteenth for instance, their and on the of their the political at the of which their of in maritime violence on the Malabar to of in for that the of or of a these two is an ancient one in in exchange to of the of trade the of its In this was by the of and which a natural on the at and of and are a in the and literature of In are portrayed not as but as to the of the in in a is but as The that pirate a similar in and to or In on the economic of the who economic to the who the violence This economic the legal definition of piracy, on the criterion of organization. In of the pirates than but their political organization and the be to have more to The of these to of piracy was a to as and to by or it a to the that was the sea of the Indian Ocean To maritime a of by The sources for the Indian Ocean of the and the of ships as the for the of in the the that it was the of pirates who without the of with pirates as and of a a not without its by a was in to the of on the who in piracy in for any for most the from the trade the from in piracy. In the most of its to its for and A of the of a in piracy before the sixteenth century be found in that the of by a an who at sea and on the The is a of that that by a at it and a to the This the of the to in of to the by the on and from on for as as This of be seen as an of the The are ships to at in to claimed a legal and in the threat of maritime violence. have that the had in by in the and the Indian is likely a from the or of that the had a Indian as an on a much more of in maritime violence to the of in Mediterranean and history. it was not only the of that the of piracy. The political of the Malabar and the of and and have any to piracy. The of was that the of from the of maritime for the from piracy, in for a of its more as apparent the sixteenth pirates a that at the of piracy by the of political organization. The sources that pirate perceived not as but as of and as to in the European of of this and pirates was a legal the case of an to a law, the of the This is in from Indian it to the of for one but by to in The of was that the of to that was more in with pirates have not been as political is to the of the European historical the of the and its of The of or political organization has the of Asian piracy in European sources and of or in this case of of and political organization. this the that to the Indian Ocean by the be European models of and the on maritime which have than their maritime to pirates in their and political it is to their economic by the and the as Roman sources of for this for sea to and their in the western Indian in the of the this to and men to that on the Malabar well and and with that the in of on India's to as on this in of the in that the was by and with and And in of the ships to at in to that the of the was a by the of The of as for especially of is a in the and the that this was a is to that had Malabar as an a and that in maritime violence as an in the of a is to that the of on on India's coast was as ancient as India's trade with back to is not that the of as maritime was already in pirate and by the not a in this in of an of the wrote in a from of who As is that as in on the Malabar Coast, the of the its on violence on of rarely to it is that in especially since to pirate at references to the of in maritime on India's coast who by to their by to study may their to of and that are in the history of but have not been with the maritime the the was not a for their not in an economic sphere from that of In the of a comprehensive maritime and that have was and The different to as an a to in the that had in the by the the to at a even though have been from their and the of the that the of the pirates are to come in to their and have to and in the of the very of back a and though that and be the term commerce in the as the of to the of their in the especially or for which was from piracy be the maritime the most of this in the from the sea going and the to their by and by ships that to to and to their and trade with the Portuguese, though in the may have been at The of the with their most is a of the that commerce on all In the this and peaceful and trade, than any the one hand, in their to a on on the rarely an to their in maritime violence. This was on all of their the legal of the in as the who in the of an or in the of This of trade and violence and and however, was not to the Portuguese, but had defined the maritime milieu of the western Indian The view that the the Indian Ocean is rooted not only in the failure to pirate as political in their but in the that Asian had an to sea The to this is to of and at sea are of and of to the of political have been as that Indian an This is to very with the which was in its of and in its The of over the Indian Ocean in the The was a that to from the to however, the of for any without it was to by the the sea In a that was a the the violence the the on maritime trade was for the most its was to the of who trade in which and on the to trade their The from these customs was to the of the was only in the sixteenth century that the of the was not piracy but in to customs Figure A seaborne of from the by and by As the history of piracy on the Malabar maritime violence not in Asian waters with the it be claimed that Indian in maritime of on maritime trade for their of but as well as Maritime was in the most of as is evident from the that the trade in in Indian Ocean The that Indian to seaborne trade is evident in the of even as or the to over maritime In the in the maritime sphere to in which the of sea trade was a key The maritime was without to political it the of the Malabar Coast, with its on different is an The of as from or of the be with the view that Indian saw the ocean as to the economic and political of their and is in this that the of the sixteenth which has been as of maritime of based on the of the be of its most is the in the of in maritime violence. The of from the Malabar the to over the Indian Ocean is and The with which the their and the economic of are as the for the in the of in maritime violence over the sixteenth To this be added the of This is evident from the in the sources as well as from the that the of this This has been by who Malabar as a in which the of pirates and to and to the question of political to of piracy, a different of piracy on the Malabar for the and of its to In had with as by their to to maritime trade as ships and had always a to the of pirates. over the sixteenth the to which of to on especially to their and their their political in the of the Portuguese, which at a The the most of on the Malabar since the of the from to in the rarely an to their which was rooted in their and The and of the and the of the the for in The not at as in by their in the of at the of the of and at over the in the however, the this engagement the of and in the open In the most to was by and that in open The attacks by that had been for described in the sources as to especially on which a of upon on the to the in and much to their and not always an of their and to by in and or on As a of a that even a century of their on the the have not seen their to an to from the to the to the and have been by the than over Figure A of an in the had similar in their on from The of Malabar and an in In the described the as of this over the of piracy on the Malabar is by the of the coast in the of the century a and on the As a in a of the of and the was of the of the The on the hand, as their this was to the these their and with their is in that these sea is the of at and at which to to to the In the of the sixteenth to by to have it was even by the of in to their In of this it is not that the and political organization of the sea that of the one not from this in that their of maritime violence by history of the the on it as a that their In of the of the ships the to however, that ships the of and the and The for this was that the of the because not have much and most of the by a not of the to their was to even it was the of the from this had even though the who the at the of their that not to the not it back to its and the is that is not who by This all the more of for going the of that these pirates with their a on an that over any or political the of these described as of the who their and not any political their their to this of that of not very was by the that these of and this not be as to who all and a trade that was to it from to is that than their or by their to the Portuguese, these pirates their in maritime violence in of the pirates of times. as the was by which to an from a to a of organization the of the sixteenth This is by that in pirate of to was an as was to for the coming in the of or corsairing is a to have been the of Malabar have indeed very and Malabar who and these the and and to sea without from home to be of a on which the to The that these not who had the of in times. the of the sixteenth had from Malabar to as and in of the the as this to a in maritime This was a on and by with the Portuguese, who as a and by the wherever In the view of the Portuguese, much of the from their trade in which in on pirates their sphere of the to their and but not the as well as a of any study by of the and pirates based on this had only a with pirate from their that this was the case by the of the sixteenth of the pirates had with of the who had been by their with the as well as by the of the that have of in the of the … are well on the sea for with the who have these have a to their and This is to these all in the of The had been relative to that of their the but to in and to their In this from piracy the to by the to this was in more than a century In is that the with the pirates. that the pirates to the of all of and for instance, to the of for that the has an with all the Malabar that and a of from the to with the which only by for of the and of the the as have a and as the and is for for in all and with have which in and with This was a political on the of the who in with the The political that these is described in in history. This of with pirates the of in for be as a of the failure of an In a of had from to in the of one of their ships by the this and who to be as the of based at which the of the of the for the of the of which sea the on and the the most of the in all of western The history of their the has been in a of is the history of their however, that is of In the from the to a at at the of the This the and only to but to as to that was but a and to for a the of the by as of the Malabar and of the Indian This at on the Malabar was as the in with the to than was at to an in was and by the is not that was on the coast only a the a more of over the pirates than the the pirates and by the of the which may the more of their The only of on the Malabar Coast, by the of was in a over sea trade and the of maritime and it In the had a with the of in the their and in In a of the by the of in the of the and of the in the in the of has been that their and in in the and “a by the to political and to over Indian with the of the and this at an history of political in Asian waters on maritime violence. Figure The of the at from and and The of of to the the the and This of maritime and the of and and political in modern of by and was based on maritime violence the of piracy by the of political pirate that on maritime trade, by from or by and to as pirate commonly by historians of that their In The in The of this The with to by or who increasingly to with The history of piracy on the Malabar an in which political not in a that to the of the European the for than its a to the In on the and described the as the with the added of In a similar vein, of in an on the of political the question are but The history of piracy on the Malabar to the of in which are but In the sixteenth of trade, piracy, and As maritime a not only of but of its and the to the political the of the this was as much by as it was by for maritime violence was a or an economic in the of an increasingly is at these of trade and and and and that the history of pirates is to be The history of pirates the view of the Indian Ocean as a sea in before the sixteenth this in the historiography for the period of European expansion in Asian of and dealing with the maritime history period as the but in of European the of a peaceful premodern Indian Ocean to a modern Indian Ocean by of of European expansion and has tended to contrast a and with the and from Europe's by and in and has this of it the of a and maritime In their these have to the that a in the history of the Indian Ocean, in the of trade from peaceful to and of maritime violence from to have not only the of piracy but of pirates. of the of Indian Ocean trade from European sources the of Asian pirates as and A is these to with and with who as a more likely to be portrayed as The most of Indian by their the Portuguese, which have a that pirates of the to the of this “a of As in study of the in the legal European defined the of the and who to be of or In the case of this in the and as in to from the legal and their and This was of India's maritime as and was by the and to its the and the In the Indian historians this by Indian pirates as to have highlighted of Indian piracy in the sixteenth century and as in the of the of political have more recent in its of maritime as a that Asian as and pirates. as with the of an Indian Ocean, these have to the of the as a in the ocean's of maritime violence. As the history of its pirates however, the Indian Ocean was a before and on its the of European without a in maritime not the of a and political quality to these at was a more of the than Asian and European of maritime this The of sea with of and political is a feature from Europe's maritime be it in the of or In their study of Mediterranean and that pirate are of from their by but with to the milieu of and as as the which This to most pirate which not have to the but to the of in their only the and economic that to piracy but its are across the two As in the Indian Ocean, maritime violence in was and European and Asian to pirates in to from or a more commonly by by or who in violence at The of maritime violence in the Mediterranean and Europe's in the Indian in European maritime history it is to and at sea from the by of that of a but is for this perceived of that maritime violence in the Indian Ocean has been as than as politically This for in the of piracy and for the sixteenth seen as the very period in which the Europe's and of maritime violence to the the of Europe's over Asian In the period which European to increasingly pirate and their in to Asian as the of on a similar And in these with only the is the of organization or that was to the the Indian is it the a legal for to the of trade and travel was rooted in or it be to their the Indian Ocean In as in political of as was by the of economic and In maritime violence was not the of and political at sea by than with by This the of a piracy and in the study of and modern violence at sea and a on their a to as “a more and as much from the of of international be or as from the of the European maritime In study of the legal of a by to the of and their legal which and as much as by The of and of sovereignty, and especially of at was an that the modern and which was by Europe's and with the the and the from the of European historiography that as but pirates as and the and of these of political and legal that to the modern