Strategic engineering of carbon dots: multi-enzyme mimetics for advanced biomedical intervention in oxidative stress-related diseases

Carbon dots (CDs), an emerging class of carbon-based nanomaterials, have garnered significant attention due to their tunable physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, and versatile enzyme-mimicking activities. This review systematically explores recent advances in the rational design of CDs for combating oxidative stress-related pathologies. Key strategies include heteroatom doping, selection of bioactive precursors, and utilization of sustainable biomaterials. Doping with Se, Fe, or N enhances reactive oxygen/nitrogen species (RONS) scavenging, peroxidase, catalase, or superoxide dismutase like activities, enabling applications in acute kidney injury, ulcerative colitis, and Parkinson's disease. CDs derived from natural compounds inherit intrinsic antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, facilitating gut microbiota regulation, diabetic wound healing, and periodontitis treatment. Notably, stimuli-responsive CDs dynamically modulate multi-enzyme activities, preventing RONS overproduction and enabling precise therapy. This work highlights the synergy between structural engineering and bioactivity preservation in CDs, positioning them as next generation nanotherapeutics for inflammatory, infectious, and degenerative diseases.